Plastic Recycling Facts

Plastics have astonishing strength, structural designs, and excellent recycling features. There are plastics that are recyclable and there are non-recyclable. Scrap or waste plastics can be reprocessed into useful products such as bags, microwave dinnerware, chairs, tables, decorations, furniture, medical equipments and other variety of objects.
The plastics are made up of polymers which include:

1. Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) used for beverage containers such as bottles for water, soft drinks and salad dressing, as well as in clothing industries.

2. High-density polyethylene (HDPE) used in contact with food such as milk bottle, juice bottle and bottle for organic solvents. It can also be used for trash bags.

3. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) used in houses for making linoleum on the floor, vinyl car tops, raincoats, shower curtains, and water pipes.

4. Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) used for packaging, e.g. foils, trays, frozen food bags andor plastic bags, and squeezable bottles for food and non-food purposes. It can also be used as protective coating for paper, textiles and other plastics.

5. Polypropylene (PP) used for microwavable dinnerware, margarine tubs, and disposable cups and plates. It can also be used in ropes, carpets and thermal under wares.

6. Polystyrene (PS) or Styrofoam used for egg cartons, disposable plates and cutlery, and for safe shipping of fragile products. It can also be used as packaging material to preserve hotness or coldness of beverages from cups.

Plastics are categorized according to their resin identification code in which polymers are being identified. Through uniform identification of codes to polymer types, recyclers could easily classify plastics according to their resin types. Plastic recycling have different ways and different uses. The code provides plastic recycling to be economically feasible.

Nowadays, plastics are being recycled not only for business purposes but also for environmental reasons. The more plastics you recycled, the more money you saved, and at the same time, the more you contribute to the environment. Compared to wood, paper, cardboard, glass and metal, plastic recycling are somewhat complex since it requires extensive processes because of the intermolecular forces of attraction between polymer chains.

One way for effective and efficient plastic recycling is through the use of dyes and fillers that are commonly utilized in beverage bottles and plastic bags, thus recycling is much easier and most preferable in this way. Plastics have strong construction and long-lasting characteristics to which production of new, reusable products will result to provide less permanent and durable products than the original.

Speaking of cleanliness, many producers are further researching for biodegradable plastics while others are thinking that most plastics would contribute as waste materials that will create destruction to our environment. But they don't realize that plastics can be recycled for human needs, thus helpful in preserving the Mother Earth. Collecting products, e.g. plastic bottles, out of our garbage cans and even in our landfills, and identifying their polymer types, are best practices for effective recycling. From time to time, plastic recycling become a source of income without causing damage to the environment.

POTATOES IN POTS AND OTHER APRIL GARDENING TIPS

Planting potatoes in large tubs or pots, removing strawberry mulch, and dividing rhubarb are some of the gardening activities for this month.

If you don't have room to plant potatoes in the garden, try planting them in tubs or large pots. Using chicken wire or wire mesh, fashion a cylinder that's about 3 feet tall and 3 feet in diameter and place it over a tilled bed. Place a layer of hay along the inside walls of the cage, then add a 2- to 3-inch layer of rich garden soil and plant 4 potato tubers. Cover the tubers with more soil. As they grow, continue lining the inner edge of the cage with hay and covering the young sprouts with soil until you reach the top of the cage. Keep the plants well watered and harvest when the vines naturally die back.

Another method is to buy one of the relatively new black potato bags—a heavyweight fabric bag that is somewhat porous, and holds about 15 gallons of soil.  Fill it about a third full of soil mixed with compost, then gently press the seed potatoes in near the top.  If large potatoes, cut them in half or pieces such that each one has at least 2 or 3 healthy emerging shoots or “eyes”.  Then once the plants begin to grow, add more soil until the bag is eventually about full.  Start your potatoes indoors now in a bright, somewhat warm location, then move them outside later in spring after frosts.  This way you can harvest potatoes by mid-summer.

Check strawberry plants twice a week for signs of new growth. As soon as you see sprouts, remove the hay or straw mulch and spread it in the rows to help control weeds. A topdressing of an inch or two of compost will give plants a boost.

If your rhubarb plants seem crowded, plan to divide them as soon as the ground thaws. Choose a cloudy, cool day, dig up the whole crown, and break off the young side shoots, trying to keep as many roots intact as possible. Transplant the mother plant back in the original hole amended with a shovelful of compost, and plant the babies in a full sun location. Harvest the young plants lightly, if at all, the first year.

Don't rush into the garden to till; wait until the soil has a chance to dry out. Tilling too early can cause soil compaction and poor growth later in the season. To know when to till, do a squeeze test: grab a handful of garden soil and squeeze it -- if it drips like a sponge it's too wet to till.  It should form a ball in your hand, then crumble when lightly squeezed.

Spray horticultural oil on fruit trees such as apples, plums and cherry to smoother any overwintering insects. Choose a calm day when temperatures are above 40 degrees (F), and be sure to cover all sides of the branches. You can also apply it to evergreens to control spider mites and other insects -- carefully follow the instructions on the label for proper usage and appropriate plants.

Once the snow melts you may start to see browning damage on lawns from road salt. To help flush the salt from the soil, water the lawn near roads and walkways several times, especially during dry periods. This will help move the salt down into the subsoil. Once this salt is removed, then you can begin to prepare the thin spots in the lawn for reseeding.  

Charlie Nardozzi, Horticulturist and
Leonard Perry, UVM Extension Horticulturist 

http://perrysperennials.info/articles/apr11tips.html

SPRING CLEANING THE WATER GARDEN

If you have a water garden, other than a large pond, spring is the time to evaluate if it needs cleaning, and to do so then before life in it fully resumes.  If there is sediment build up on the bottom (a half inch or more) and leaves floating on the top, and the water is murky, cleaning will help keep fish healthier and unwanted algae from growing. 

Evaluate your water garden after spring thaw occurs. If you have been diligent about pruning plants and skimming, you'll only need to drain the pool or pond every three to five years. If you like pristine clear water, then cleaning yearly may be needed.  Never drain it more than once a year, however, and ideally when temperatures are below 55 degrees F.   Water gardens have beneficial bacteria that keep algae in check, and below this temperature they aren’t yet established.  Cleaning out the water when warmer may disrupt this balance, with the water going “green” before the bacteria build again to sufficient numbers.

If you have a simple plastic tub with no fish as I do, you can simply drain and clean it, before refilling.  I just use a pail to get most the water out, then a plastic dust pan, scoop or old sponge for the rest.  If you had any plants left in over winter, remove them to a place out of sun and keep moist (a tray or pan with water works well, or moist newspapers over the top) for the short time you’ll need for cleaning.  If you had water plants that love warmer temperatures, and didn’t hold them over winter indoors in pans of water over 50 or 60 degrees F, they may need replacing.
 
Depending on the amount of decomposed debris, you probably can use a net to clean small pools. For larger ponds, or where a lot of debris has settled at the bottom, you will need to pump the water out with an existing or submerged pump, or by siphoning. If you have small fish, place some screen over the hose or pump to keep them from being sucked out.  You can transfer most of the old water to a clean garbage can, children's wading pool, or large buckets to be used for watering plants.  Or, merely water lawns and garden beds with the nutrient-rich water.

As you lower the water level, carefully remove the plants. If you have fish in your pond, pump the water level down to about six inches, then catch them with a net. Put the fish in holding containers of the "old water," covering these with netting to discourage predators, and if koi to prevent them from jumping out. Keep fish out of direct sun, and get your cleaning done soon so they can be reintroduced the same day.  They’re weak after a long winter, so you want to minimize stresses on them.

Once the pond is empty, quickly rinse the walls. Some prefer to use a forceful nozzle on a hose, rather than pressure washer, to try to leave some of the algae on the sides and rocks.  This will help your pond “ecosystem” reestablish more quickly.   If you have rocks and gravel buried in sediment, you may need to remove them and clean out the sediment before replacing.  With the water out, check liners and hoses for leaks and repairs, and clean or replace filters. 

After washing, pump the remaining water out, or use a wet/dry shop vacuum.   Then refill with clean water, adding a neutralizer chemical (according to label directions), if you have fish, to hasten dechlorination. If you did a thorough cleaning, or did so during warm temperatures, you may want to jump start your beneficial bacterial with a commercial microbe product. 
          
Replace the plants, giving those that need it a trim first, repotting or dividing them if the pots are bursting at their seams. You can add fertilizer to pots, granular mixed with the soil or special pond tablets pushed into it.  If you have fish, use fish-safe fertilizer pellets.

When the water temperature stabilizes, you can return the fish to the pond.  Check first to make sure they are healthy, with no visible signs of disease or parasites, in which case you’ll want to quarantine them.  There should be no more than a three to five degree difference in temperature between the old and the new water to prevent shock to the fish.

It's a good idea to add some hiding places for fish and frogs in the pond as a guard against predators. Pond walls that slope straight down from the sides, as opposed to gradual slopes with shallow areas, which wading birds like, also help prevent predators from cleaning out your fish.  An owl or heron decoy placed near the pond may help, just remember to move it often to simulate the real thing.

Plants will keep water clear as they absorb the nitrate buildup that naturally occurs in ponds. However, throughout the summer, you will need to regularly prune plants both to control algae and enhance the appearance of the water garden. One rule of thumb is that the pond surface should be 60 to 70 percent filled with plants, maximum.  Periodic skimming and netting also will keep your water feature attractive, and minimize spring cleaning next year.

Follow these steps and your water garden will be a low-maintenance and beautiful asset to your landscape, not a high-maintenance eyesore.  Check local complete garden centers for plants and supplies. A directory of suppliers, plus information on all aspects of water gardening, can be found online (www.iwgs.org).  

Dr. Leonard Perry, Extension Professor
University of Vermont 

http://perrysperennials.info/articles/sprwater.html

FERTILIZING LAWNS

Fertilizer is essential for good lawn growth, yet with good lawn management and soil testing you often can reduce the amount needed.  Soil test kits are available from state Extension Services, and include instructions for proper sampling.

Testing your soils every three years or so is a good practice. A key component of a soil test is the soil acidity, or pH.  If this is not between 6.0 and 7.0 (the latter being neutral, between acid and alkaline), certain nutrients won’t be available to the lawn, no matter how much you apply. 

If available, have your soil organic matter tested too.  It should be above three percent.  If lower, you should sprinkle compost heavily (up to half inch) over the lawn a few times during the season. Make sure the compost is aged, and free of weed seeds.

Mow more frequently to avoid having an excess of grass clippings so you can leave them on the lawn.   This simple practice recycles nutrients back into the soil, and has been shown in research at the University of Connecticut to reduce fertilizer needs by 50 percent or more.

In Vermont and similar cold climates with shorter growing seasons, fertilize lawns in late April, early summer, and then late summer.  If you leave grass clippings, and have good organic matter in the soil, you may need to only fertilize twice—early spring and late summer. At each application time, you should apply one pound of actual nitrogen for every 1000 square feet of lawn.  The key words here are “actual nitrogen”, not pounds of fertilizer.  Of the three numbers on a fertilizer bag, the first is percent nitrogen.  So a 5-3-4 fertilizer has five percent nitrogen.  To figure how much fertilizer will give you one pound of nitrogen, divide one by the first number (one divided by five is 0.2), then multiply by 100.  So 20 pounds of 5-3-4 will yield one pound of actual nitrogen.  If you have 5000 square feet for instance, you’d need five times that, or 100 pounds of fertilizer, evenly spread over the area.

Apply fertilizer with a fertilizer spreader. Spreading fertilizer by hand will always cause some spots to be over-fertilized and others to have none. When using a spreader, be sure to get complete coverage of the lawn. Keep moving at a constant speed to prevent uneven spreading. Any missed spots will appear quite yellow. Do not fill the spreader when it is sitting on the lawn. Fertilizer spills are inevitable and may cause a large dead spot that persists for weeks.

Use caution when applying fertilizer combined with herbicide, especially with broadcast spreaders. These spreaders can throw the material into flowerbeds where the herbicide can injure desirable ornamental plants, or tree and shrub roots can pick these up from under lawns.

Lawn fertilizers vary in composition and price. An ideal composition for a chemical lawn fertilizer is a 4-1-2 ratio of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, for example 20-5-10. Many others created for lawns, that may not be this exact ratio, will work fine too.  For a natural fertilizer, a 3-1-2 ratio is good, but anything close such as a 5-2-4 fertilizer works fine. 

The price of the fertilizer relates somewhat to the analysis and the nutrient carriers used in the fertilizer. Less expensive chemical fertilizers are usually water soluble, thus have a high potential to burn the grass if applied when hot, at high rates, and not watered in after spreading.  Being water soluble they are easily leached out of soil with rain and watering, so may pollute water sources.  Yet water-soluble fertilizers will give a response for four to six weeks, become available in the spring when temperatures are still cool, and result in more and darker growth sooner.  If overfed with such fertilizers, succulent grass growth may be more susceptible to insects and diseases.

More expensive fertilizers are not water-soluble (often seen as WIN for water insoluble nitrogen), have low burn potential, and give a response for up to eight weeks, or longer. These fertilizers rely on microorganisms in the soil to release the nutrients. Since the microorganisms are not active when the soil is cool, the fertilizers will not become available early in the spring. Not being water soluble is the reason they stay around longer, and so have less potential for pollution from runoff.  Many good lawn fertilizers will have a mix of both water soluble, and water insoluble nitrogen.  Where lawns are watered regularly, especially on sandy soil, these water insoluble fertilizers should be used.

Many natural-based fertilizers are water insoluble, so last for a long period.  Such natural-based or organic fertilizers have other benefits, such as aiding soil microorganisms needed for healthy soil.  These various forms of soil life provide many benefits, including converting nitrogen from the air for use by plants, producing carbon dioxide which plants need, dissolving nutrients from minerals in rocks, decomposing thatch, aerating the soil, and helping to reduce pests and diseases. So in spite of lower numbers (percent of nutrients) on the bag than with chemical fertilizers, these natural fertilizers enrich the soil in many more ways than the chemical fertilizers.  

 Dr. Leonard Perry, Extension Professor

University of Vermont

http://perrysperennials.info/articles/lawnfert.html

AN EASTER BASKET OF FLOWERS

The flower that most often comes to mind when we think of Easter is, of course, the Easter lily. But there are other flowers appropriate for this time of year as well, all with rather interesting origins.

In the Alps, the narcissus has been associated with Easter for centuries. In fact, even before Christianity, the narcissus represented springtime in Greek mythology.   It is still widely used as the main Easter flower in many countries. 
In England and Russia, pussy willows are used for Easter flowers. In the Middle East, it is wild tulips, while in Mexico, tropical flowers fill the churches during this spring holiday season. The early Germans decorated with red flowers and red fruited plants such as English holly, believing the red color represented the blood of Christ. The field anemone (Anemone coronaria) also was associated with the passion of Christ.

The Easter cactus (Hatiora gaertneri, formerly Rhipsalidopsis), is so named as this relative of the Thanksgiving and Christmas cacti, all looking almost identical, blooms in spring.  The funnel-shaped, flaring flowers are either rose purple or scarlet orange, coming out of flat, segmented leaves.  These, as their kin, are often found in hanging baskets where they’re well adapted, growing naturally on trees in Brazil.  The flowers open during the day, closing at night.  Being a cactus, keep this one on the dry side.

Do you know the Bermuda lily?  You probably do, as this is the true name of the Easter lily, deriving from its origin.  It is a pure white flower, believed to symbolize purity. Coming from one bulb, the flower is said to represent the tomb of Jesus with the blossoms symbolizing his life after death.  It is the most common flowering potted plant of spring.

When buying a lily, select a plant with many unopened buds and leaves all the way down the stem. Poor growing conditions or root disease will cause the loss of leaves from the bottom up, so be sure to pull back the wrapper to check.

Choose a well-proportioned plant, one that's about two to three times as high as the pot. Check the buds, flowers, and leaves--especially the undersides--for signs of insect pests and disease.  

To keep your lily healthy at home, remove the decorative foil or paper covering the pot, or make a hole in the bottom, to allow better drainage. Put your plant where it will get plenty of bright, indirect light and cool temperatures. About 40 to 50 degrees F at night, or as cool as possible, and below 68 degrees F during the day is ideal.  

You also will need to keep the soil constantly moist. To prolong the life of the blossoms, remove the yellow, pollen-bearing pods or anthers found in the center of each flower as it opens.

Don't expect your lily to flower again as it's already been "forced" once by the grower to bloom in time for Easter. However, you might get your lily to bloom again next fall by planting it outdoors once the soil has warmed up.  

If you plan to replant your lily outdoors, remove the flowers as they fade. Put the plant on a sunny windowsill for four to six weeks until the foliage matures. Continue to water.  When the leaves turn brown, cut the stem off at the soil line. Then in late May, plant the bulb four to six inches deep in a sunny, well-drained location. Fertilize twice during the summer. With luck, your lily will bloom this fall. Just don't count on it surviving a northern winter. 

Other appropriate flowers for Easter, and spring in general, are other bulbs such as tulips and hyacinths, and azaleas.  The bulbs can be purchased as cut flowers, or in pots.  If potted, the hyacinths can be planted outside in warmer weather, and may survive to future years.  Most tulips, however, will not come back next spring.  If giving the hyacinth as a gift, make sure the recipient isn’t allergic to the strong odor of the flowers.
           
Azaleas come in reds, white, and pinks.  They are tender, so wont survive winter outdoors in northern climates.  Still, they are a good value.  Keep them moist (not wet), and cool with plenty of light, and you should get several weeks of blooms indoors.  

Dr. Leonard Perry, Extension Professor
University of Vermont 

http://perrysperennials.info/articles/basket.html

COLD CLIMATE FRUIT TREES

For every climate there are certain fruits that grow better, or may not grow at all.  Even a fruit like the apple, that grows in all states, has cultivars (cultivated varieties) that grow better in certain regions.  Buying from local nurseries in the spring is one of the best ways to be assured that the fruit selections are adapted to your particular area.  When shopping online and through mail-order catalogs in winter and spring, make sure what you want has a chance to succeed in your garden.  There are quite a few tree fruits to consider for colder climates.

           

Apples are arguably the most common tree fruit in cold climates, perhaps because they are the hardiest.  This comes from both the cultivar and the rootstock onto which this is grafted.  Unless you order from a specialty grower, you don’t need to worry about which rootstock is best as the nursery has already done this.

For cold climates, such as the northeastern states, you’ll want cultivars such as McIntosh that ripen best with warm fall days and cool nights.  Some of the most hardy cultivars (USDA zone 3, or -30 to -40 degrees F average minimum winter temperature) include Honeycrisp™, Honeygold, Lodi, Northern Spy, and the relatively new Zestar!™ from the University of Minnesota.  There are several other apples hardy to zone 4 (-20 to -30 degrees F) including Cortland, Empire, Freedom, Gold and Red Delicious, Liberty, Paula Red, Red Rome, and Spartan.  Several heirloom cultivars to consider are Cox Orange Pippin, Gravenstein, Wealthy, and Yellow Transparent.

           

Peaches are one of the tree fruits that many gardeners want to grow, but unfortunately few are adapted to the coldest climates.  Most are hardy only to USDA zone 5 (-10 to -20 degrees F) at best, nectarines (smooth skin peaches) even less hardy.  Even if they grow they may not fruit, having flower buds damaged at higher temperatures than leaf buds.  Flowers may be damaged by spring frosts, especially common with apricots. Even a short mid-winter thaw may cause buds to lose their hardiness.  Peach trees also need a long growing season to harden off for winter, and to develop next year’s buds, something they may not get in cold climates. 

           

An eastern exposure is best for peaches and their relatives, warming sooner on cold spring days so less prone to frost damage.  Proximity to bodies of water helps moderate temperatures too.  Those cultivars that may grow into zone 4 include Canadian Harmony, Contender, Glohaven, Madison, Red Haven, and Reliance-- perhaps the most cold hardy and popular northern peach, an introduction from the University of New Hampshire.

           

Most European pears are a bit hardier (usually to zone 5) than peaches but less so than apples, so they may not all grow reliably in the coldest climates.  Asian pears in particular are best in warmer climates.  Among the hardiest European pears, perhaps even into zone 3, are Flemish Beauty, Luscious, Parker, and Patten. 

While sweet cherries are generally only hardy to zone 5, many sour cherries grow into zone 4.  If you want to try sweet cherries, those possibly fruiting into zone 4 include Kristin, Stark Gold™, and the Cornell University introduction WhiteGold™.  

Sour cherries come in two types.  The amarelle type includes the common pie cherry Montmorency, with fruit flattened on the ends, generally bright red or yellow inside, and producing a clear juice.  The Morello sour cherries such as Marasca (from which the Italian liqueur and maraschino cherries are named), have rounded fruit, bright red inside, and produce a dark juice.  Among the most hardy sour cherries to zone 3 are Meteor (amarelle) and North Star (Morello).  Surefire™ (Morello) from New York state is late blooming, so better resists frosts. 

           

While the European plums are generally hardy to zone 5, and the Japanese to zone 6, the American hybrids are hardy to zone 4 and sometimes to zone 3.  For the coldest areas, also consider hybrids of cherries and plums called cherry-plums in the U.S. and chums in Canada.  One of the main problems growing plums in the north is that they bloom a week or two ahead of apples, so may be damaged by spring frosts. Empress and Shropshire are cultivars that bloom later, so may miss these frosts. One of the hardiest of the European plums, Mount Royal, came from Quebec in the early 1900s.  The hardiest American hybrids include Alderman, Superior, and Waneta.

           

In addition to hardiness, at least three main considerations apply to choosing any tree fruit.  Pick ones you like to eat, and usually buy from markets.  Also pick ones for your space and needs.  Dwarf and semi-dwarf trees are popular as they take up less space, and bear sooner than standard size trees.  Many cultivars of tree fruits are better suited to certain uses—eating fresh, cooking, sauces, canning or freezing, or making juice—so determine how you might like to use them.  Apples for eating fresh are often called “dessert” apples.

           

When buying tree fruits, it’s always best to get at least two different cultivars that bloom at the same time for cross pollination.  Even though some may be listed as “self-fertile” (if you have only room for one tree, look for these), they invariably fruit better with a partner nearby (within 50 to 100 feet).  Peaches, however, generally don’t need such cross pollination.

Dr. Leonard Perry, Extension Professor

University of Vermont

http://perrysperennials.info/articles/coldfruit.html

PRUNING FRUIT TREES

Especially for young trees just planted last year, late winter and early spring is an essential time to prune.  As trees are dormant, not yet growing, this is usually called "dormant pruning."
           
If you remember nothing else, keep in mind the 2 C's and 3 D's.  Remove any crossed and crowded branches, and any dead, diseased, or damaged.  Crossing branches rub on each other, wounding bark and allowing diseases to enter.  Crowded branches keep light from getting to the inside, so you won't get as many leaves and fruit, and may get more diseases instead.  For older trees, the adage is that a bird should be able to fly through the tree without interference.
           
Dead branches are obvious in the growing season, but this time of year with no leaves you'll need to look for ones off-colored, often with shrunken (canker disease) areas.  When pruning damaged branches, prune back to just above a bud, to a lower branch, or back to the trunk.  Where older branches come off the trunk they form a raised area or ridge of bark.  Cut back to, but not into, this bark ridge or "collar."
           
Another important point with many fruit trees is the branch angle, as measured at the base, from the trunk.  Those mostly horizontal, usually a bit under 90 degrees from the trunk (a right angle), are the strongest and bear the most fruit.  Those upright, especially at an angle less than 45 degrees from the trunk forming a V-shape, have what are called narrow crotches (where the branch meets the trunk).  These are are vigorous, produce less fruit, and are prone to breaking in wind and winter ice. Branch angles even may vary among cultivars of a fruit type, such as Delicious apples growing more upright, and Jonathan being more spreading.
           
You have a couple options for such branches, one being to prune them off at the trunk.  If the tree is young, and the branches are where you'd like them, they can be "spread".  If real young, only a few inches long, push them downward using a clothespin clamped on the trunk.  If they're a bit longer, even a year or two old, hold them downward for a season with wood stakes (with a cut off nail on each in), or by hanging weights (fishing weights for small branches, cement weights the size of small drink cups for larger branches). 
           
There are three main pruning systems that are used for fruit trees-- the central leader, modified leader, and open center or vase shape.  The central leader is just that--one main branch reaching upward, the tree forming a conical or Christmas-tree shape.  It is often used for upright trees that don't get too tall like dwarf or even semi-dwarf apples, or European pears and plums.  If you don't mind standard size fruit and nut trees reaching a full height, often 30 to 50 feet (more for most nuts), then the central leader system is for you, or rather them.
           
On the other hand, if you want to keep upright trees such as many apples, upright sour cherry cultivars, and European plums (some of the latter are hardy into USDA zone 5) lower, then prune these to the modified leader.  This is like a central leader early in life then, when at the height you want, prune out the main leader and allow main side branches ("scaffolds") to develop.
           
When selecting which scaffolds to leave, they should be equally spaced around the tree, none directly and closely above another.  For dwarf trees, as you measure up the trunk, scaffolds should be about a foot apart, about two feet apart for standard trees, a distance in between for semi-dwarfs.

For some trees you may want to use a variation of the modified leader-- the multiple leader system.  It is a cross between the modified and the central leader.  Once the tree is tall enough for you to manage or as you desire, prune out the leader but allow several upright (not horizontal) branches to develop.  This is often used for European pears; in case the fireblight disease attacks one or more leaders, there will be others left.
           
The final system is the open center or vase-- descriptive of the shape.  This is used for spreading trees such as peaches (where they can be grown, most aren't hardy even into zone 5), filberts, spreading sour cherry cultivars, and American plum hybrids and their species.  For an open center, to allow full light to enter the center, don't let a central leader develop.  From an early age of the tree, prune to have 3 to 5 main scaffold branches.  Then each year in late winter or early spring, prune off any upright shoots in the center of the tree.  Prune upright shoots farther out on the scaffolds back to a bud pointing outward.  This will keep the tree growing more horizontal then vertical.
           
A couple other rules are useful when pruning fruit trees.  The more you cut off, the more growth this stimulates.  So if you want to slow down growth on a vigorous tree, don't prune it as much.  Pruning in summer can help this way too, as pruning then results in less regrowth than dormant pruning.  Just don't prune after midsummer, so any new growth can harden by fall.

Dr. Leonard Perry, Extension Professor
University of Vermont

http://perrysperennials.info/articles/prunefrts.html

http://perrysperennials.info/articles/prunegrapes.html

If you're growing grapes at home, late winter and early spring is the time for a major pruning.  Not pruning off enough is one of the biggest mistakes beginning grape growers make.  Between 70 and 90 percent of the previous growth should be removed this time of year, each year.  This is because grape vines, assuming you have ones hardy for your area, can be quite vigorous, producing more growth and fruit than roots can support.  Only prune less if vines aren't vigorous for whatever reason, such as poor soil, too little fertilizer, part shade, or poor match for your climate.
           
Grape pruning can get rather complex, and is for commercial growers, varying with region, training system, even cultivars (cultivated varieties).  But in home gardens grape pruning should be somewhat simple, especially after you do it a few times and get the hang of what to cut.  If you're too squeamish about cutting too much off, do some one day, then come back and do more the next, and so on until the vines have enough removed.
            
Don't worry about pruning just the right way, there really isn't one, and each vine is different.  Also these are vines not stone sculptures--if you do make a mistake, the plants will grow out of it.
           
The type of pruning will depend on what kind of structure or trellis you have to support the vines, and type of vines.  The most common home systems are either one wire strung between posts about 5 feet off the ground and parallel to it (the single wire system), or this and one wire half way between it and the ground (the two wire system).  These may have other names, depending on if the vines grow up to the wire, then are trained only in one direction (single cane) or with canes branching off along the wire in opposite directions (bilateral).
           
So a bilateral 2-wire system with 4 canes has one in each direction on the top and on the lower wires.  This is perhaps the most common home system, often called the 4-cane Kniffen system.  Since the older short stubs near the trunk, from which canes come each year are called "arms", this may be seen too as the 4-arm system.  The canes along the wires are called "cordons", so you may see this called the 4-cordon system.
           
If just setting up a trellis and planting grapes, put posts in the ground to a depth of 2 to 3 feet, every 8 feet along a row.  Posts should be 5 to 6 feet above ground.  You'll plant one vine centered between each pair of posts.  End posts should be angled outward (about 60 degrees from horizontal) so they don't sag inward.  Wires should have turnbuckles (as from hardware stores) on the ends, and on the wires leading to anchors on each end.  These keep wires taut.  On each end, use guy wires from the slanted (outward) posts to some form of anchor on or in the ground.  This can be a screw anchor as for trees or tents, or a buried block.
           
The second main factor to consider with pruning is the type of vine, which leads to the second type of pruning method.  In the above systems, canes are pruned back to near the trunk each year, leaving stubs (the arms) with only 4 or 5 buds on each.  This is called "cane" pruning.  If the canes are left on the wires and not pruned back, but rather the fruiting shoots from the past year that have grown off these canes are cut back, this is "spur pruning".  It's called this because when you cut back these fruiting shoots in late winter leaving only 2 or 3 buds on each, these short stubs on the canes are called "spurs."
       
Once you cut back all this previous fruiting wood, creating spurs, thin out the spurs.  There should be on every 6 inches or so along the cane along the wire.  This keeps too many fruiting shoots from forming the next year, more than the plant can support and still make good size clusters of grapes.
           
Cane pruning is used for most grapes. Spur pruning is mainly used on the vigorous southern muscadine grapes (where they're hardy in mild climates), as well as some European ones.  Spur pruning typically only utilizes one top wire.
           
Once your early spring pruning is done, there is one more time you'll need to prune.  Actually it is a thinning process once the grapes start forming in summer.  When fruit are rather small, only 1/8-inch or so across, remove whole clusters leaving only one or two bunches of grapes on each new shoot.  This is all the leaves on the plant can support in order to grow grapes with the size and flavor to which we're accustomed.  You should remove any clusters that start forming the first two years after planting so the plant can direct all its energy into growth.

  

Dr. Leonard Perry, Extension Professor  

 University of Vermont 

http://perrysperennials.info/articles/prunegrapes.html

CINERARIA, CALCEOLARIA, AND CYCLAMEN

Looking for a little early color indoors this spring, or perhaps something more unusual to give to a favorite friend? Try a cineraria, calceolaria, or cyclamen. All are unusual, festive, and available at many garden centers, florists, and even some groceries and large retailers.
           
The cineraria has conspicuous daisy-like flowers, about two to three inches across, held above large, dark green foliage. Flower colors include red, pink, white, blue, and bi-colors. These potted annuals like bright light and cool temperatures--45 degrees F at night, 55 degrees F during the day. Keep the soil consistently moist--but not waterlogged--to prolong bloom. Cineraria are difficult to flower a second time so should be discarded after bloom.
           
Calceolaria, also known as the pouch or pocketbook flower, has red, yellow, and bronze-colored pouch-like flowers held above pale green leaves. Some varieties have bi-colored blooms. Others produce small, spotted blooms. This plant requires bright, filtered light; cool temperatures; and consistent soil moisture for continued bloom. Again, keep soil moist but never overwater. It is better to have the soil too dry than too wet. Like the cineraria, calceolaria is an annual, so discard after flowering.
           
Cyclamen are by far the more common of these three indoor flowering plants.   They have variegated gray-green elliptical leaves and large, colorful blossoms like waxy butterflies held on stalks above the foliage.  Depending on the variety, cyclamen produce purple, pink, red, salmon, or white flowers.  With cyclamen, you may find the traditional large ones about 8 to 12 inches high, and the same wide. Miniature (often just called mini) cyclamen are about half that size. 
           
This cool temperature plant needs plenty of sunlight, even watering, and nighttime temperatures of 50 to 60 degrees F for long flowering. Poor light or temperatures that are too warm will cause leaves to yellow and drop and buds to fail to open.  If stems start to rot at the base, and you see a fuzzy gray growth there (botrytis disease), plants are staying too wet and need more air circulation.
           
Unlike the other two plants, cyclamen can be held over successfully if the right conditions are provided.  When the flowers fade, gradually decrease watering.  Leaves may mostly, even totally, die back just leaving the "corm" storage structure and roots.  The pot can then be placed indoors in a dark location, or outdoors in summer where it won't get watered.  Early fall, gradually increase watering as new growth occurs.  Fertilize then as you would other houseplants.
            
What we know as florist's cyclamen (compared to their more hardy outdoor perennial relatives) date back to the eighteenth century, and they were popular in Victorian homes and conservatories. The plant in general, however, has been traced back to the time of ancient Greeks.
           
When buying any of these or other flowering potted plants, look for a plant with many buds about to open, rather than one in full bloom.  For cyclamen, look down inside under the leaves for many healthy stalks with flower buds.  Check flowers, buds, and undersides of leaves for signs of insects and disease. Wrap the plant well for its trip home from the store as cold can harm these sensitive plants. Most places will provide paper bags or sleeves for protection

 

Dr. Leonard Perry, Extension Professor
University of Vermont

http://perrysperennials.info/articles/cinerar.html

EDIBLE FLOWER GARDENING

This year, when ordering your seeds from the catalogs, check out the edible flower varieties.  You can have an attractive flower garden and eat from it too, adding some excitement to your cooking, new flavors, and impressing your meal guests.

The concept of eating flowers is not new. Flower cookery has been traced back to Roman times and was especially popular in the Victorian era. Today, many restaurant chefs and innovative home cooks garnish their entrees with flower blossoms for a touch of elegance.  While salads and garnishes on plates are the most common uses, steep some in warm water to use this in recipes.  Others can be used to flavor stews, drinks, and confections.

One very important point that you need to remember is that not every flower is edible. In fact, sampling some flowers can make you very, very sick, so do your research first.  Some can eat certain flowers, others may be allergic to them.  Or a few flowers may be fine, too many may cause gastric upset or other problems.

When purchasing flower seeds, make sure the listing in the seed catalog identifies the variety as an edible flower.  The most important point is, when growing them, never use any pesticides on plants you plant to use for their flowers.

One edible flower  that everyone is familiar with is the sunflower. Choose a mammoth or giant variety. You can harvest the seeds after the petals drop, cure them, then eat them raw or oven-roasted.  There are many other possibilities for edible flowers.

Johnny Jump Ups are a tender perennial with tiny, pansy-like flowers in deep purple, mauve, yellow and white. Blossoms have a mild wintergreen flavor and can be used in salads, to decorate cakes, or served with soft cheese. This plant will do well in sun or shade and grows to a height of six to eight inches.

Tuberous begonias are an annual in cold climates, grown from a tuber that you overwinter indoors similar to a dahlia.  Flowers have a sour citrus taste, the petals often used in salads and as a garnish.  The stems even can be used like rhubarb.  Avoid this plant though if you have gout, kidney stones, rheumatism or similar problems, as it contains oxalic acid.

Calendula is another annual that has been widely used, growing one to two foot high with yellow to gold or orange daisy-like flowers.  This has been called “poor man’s saffron”, as it can be used similarly with a similar sharp taste.  The petals give a yellow tint to soups, pasta, rice, or herbal butters.

Nasturium is a low-growing annual, originally from Peru, which became popular during the reign of Louis XIV who grew them in the palace flower beds. Blossoms taste like watercress with a slightly sweet flavor. You have several edible varieties to choose from, most of which grow best in full sun or light shade.

Select lemon or tangerine varieties of signet marigolds. Blossoms have a citrus taste and can be used to perk up vegetables, pasta, and salads. Marigolds are easy to grow and like full sun.

Anise hyssop, an attractive perennial, bears deep lilac-colored flower spikes that bloom profusely for several months. The blossoms make attractive plate garnishes and are often used in Chinese-style dishes. The leaves can be used for a naturally sweet tea or sugar to make candies. Both flowers and leaves have a delicate anise or licorice flavor. Some people say the flavor reminds them of root beer.

Borage is an annual ornamental with clusters of one-half inch sky-blue flowers, which bees find particularly attractive. Borage blossoms have a light cucumber taste and can be added to salads, fruit cups, or frozen in ice cubes for cold drinks. Some add them to alcoholic beverages like white wine, or to brandy and sherry for a punch.  Plants grow two to three feet tall.

Chive can seed itself around profusely, so beware.  This herb has attractive lavender-pink blossoms that make a delicious addition to salads, egg dishes, and potatoes. Both blossoms and the slender dark green leaves (or "stems") have a subtle onion flavor. This perennial plant likes full sun and can grow to one foot.

Vegetables with edible blossoms are runner beans (garnish soups and salads) and squash (eat as a vegetable, or fill with a stuffing). The yellow flowers of broccoli add a mild spicy flavor to salads or stir fry.  Or sample the tiny flowers of arugula and herbs such as chamomile, oregano, dill, garlic chives, thyme, rosemary, mint, or savory.  Lavender flowers have many uses in cooking, such as in bread, sorbet, cookies, stews, and to flavor beef and pork.  It is elegant added to champagne or chocolate desserts.

There are many other potential flowers you may find in catalogs.  Also consider cornflower (sweet to spicy, use as a garnish), dame’s rocket (related to mustard, it adds a bitter taste to salads), impatiens and peony (both with sweet flavor when added to salads or drinks), or primrose (also called cowslip, the flowers add a sweet taste to salads).  

Dr. Leonard Perry, Extension Professor
University of Vermont

http://perrysperennials.info/articles/ediblefls.html

STARTING SEEDS AND OTHER MARCH GARDENING TIPS

Organizing your seeds and starting many, pruning young leeks, and forcing shrub branches into bloom indoors, are some of the gardening activities for this month.

Organize seed packets by planting time. Some seeds are generally sown directly in the garden so should be set aside into one group.  These include ones such as corn, beans, and carrots.  A few flowers are often sown directly into the soil, including sweet peas and nasturtium.  I like to sow most of my seeds, even ones such as squash that can be sown directly, into peat pots or cell packs prior to get a slight jump on our usually short growing season.

Group seeds to be started indoors, then arrange them by planting time. For example, start with seeds that should be planted indoors 8 weeks before the average last frost, followed by those to be planted 6 weeks before, and so on. If you haven’t tracked, or aren’t sure of, your average last frost date, figure on perhaps mid-May in USDA zone 5, late May in zone 4, and early June or later in zone 3.  This date of course varies with your own more specific climate and year.

Some of the flowers you may want to start about 8 weeks from setting out include ageratum, coleus, dianthus, geranium, impatiens, ornamental millet, petunia, salvia, and annual vinca.  Wait until later to start most vegetables, although parsley might be started 8 weeks prior to planting out.  Many end up starting tomatoes too early, ending up with spindly and leggy plants.  Aim for about 6 weeks prior to planting for these.  More details on sowing dates can be found online (perrysperennials.info/pubs/oh89sowf.html and oh90sowv.html).

By starting your own plants, you'll save money and be able to grow unusual varieties not readily available in nurseries. Start seeds in flats filled with moistened seed-starting mix. Once the seeds germinate, place the plants under tube lights or grow lights (14 hours a day, 6 to 8 inches above seedlings), and keep soil moist.

If you started leeks indoors already, they are probably getting pretty tall by now. Trim them back to about 2 inches in height, so they don't get spindly and fall over. Like grasses, leeks grow from near the soil line rather than from the top, so you won't harm the growing point by trimming them back.

Prune branches and bring them indoors to force into early bloom. Prune flowering shrubs such as forsythia, quince, mockorange, deutzia, and honeysuckle.  Tree branches easily forced include crabapple, apple, cherries, serviceberry, and of course pussy willow.  Some like to soak branches in a bathtub overnight.  Trim the branches to a reasonable size for your vase.  Place in water, and you should have flowers in 2 to 4 weeks for many of these.

March also is a good time to prune fruit trees.  Choose a day above freezing if possible, as it is easier on you as well as on the tree.  First, check for and remove the 3 D’s—branches that are dead (usually a different color), diseased (look for scabs or spots), and damaged (as from ice damage or wind breakage).  Then check for and remove the 2 C’s—branches that are crowded or crossing (they’ll rub on each other, wearing off the bark where disease can enter).    Finally, prune selectively, shaping the tree according to its age and type of fruit tree.

Charlie Nardozzi, Horticulturist and
Leonard Perry, UVM Extension Horticulturist

http://perrysperennials.info/articles/mar11tips.html

Water gardening made easy: an in-depth look

Backyard ponds and water gardens are for birds, butterflies, frogs, fish ... and you and your family. These ponds are typically small, sometimes no larger than three to four feet in diameter, and may be built in barrels or other patio containers. Water is effective in drawing wildlife to your backyard, as well as a natural, relaxing and scenic addition that can provide interest and enjoyment.

* WHERE TO PUT A BACKYARD POND

Consider locating your backyard pond where you can see it from a deck or patio and it blends in with its natural surroundings. Elevate the soil around the pond slightly so excess water will flow away from the pond, not into it, and be sure any drainage from the pond is away from your house. Plan to landscape around the pond to provide a habitat for frogs and birds that need land and water. If you would like to use a pump to re-circulate water, use a filter or light the area, be sure electrical service is readily available in that area. Additionally, there will be less maintenance if your pond is not under a tree, and most aquatic plants will grow better in full sun.

If you do not have space in your yard for a built-in earthen pond, consider a "tub" pond or large water bowls. These can be placed on the patio and provide many of the same benefits as a built-in pond. There are numerous tub kits available that can be as simple as adding water, a pump and some plants. They can also be moved inside in the winter as long as good lighting is provided for plants.

* POND LINERS

Pond liners keep water from seeping into the soil. Even in heavy clay soils, a liner is necessary. You can buy rigid pond liners in a variety of shapes; they are quite durable, and some may even include built-in waterfalls. However, many are quite small, and if you want a larger pool or would like to design your own shape, consider using a polyvinyl chloride (PVC) liner. Use a liner specifically designed for pools--while other plastics initially may be cheaper, many are not resistant to ultraviolet light and will break down quickly. Examine the toxicity of the plastic as well, as some plastics may be lethal to fish. Also, look into the thickness of the liners--a thicker liner tends to be more resistant to punctures.

If you do use PVC, to determine the amount of the piece you will need, measure the maximum width, length, and depth of your pond. Multiply the maximum depth by three, then add this number to both the length and width. This will allow enough plastic to be securely held down around all pond edges.

As a side note, while expensive and requiring more expertise to install, cement is also an option as a pool liner.

* INSTALLING THE POND

You can put in a backyard pond anytime the ground is not frozen or overly wet. If using a pre-formed liner, dig a hole to the correct depth and slightly wider. Insert the liner, making sure it is level and sits securely in the ground. Backfill around the sides, then add water, pump and plants. Complete landscaping around the pool.

If using a PVC liner, plan at least a weekend to install and landscape.

* STEPS TO INSTALL A POND WITH A PVC LINER:

1. Decide on your pond's location.

2. Using a hose or rope, lay out the shape of your pond on the ground.

3. Once you are happy with the shape, start digging. Stockpile your topsoil so you can use it to landscape around your pond.

4. Plan for part of your pond to be at least 18 to 24 inches deep; 24 to 36 inches is even better. This will allow for a greater diversity of plants and fish to live in the pond. You may want to make tiers around the inside of the pond at various depths on which to place pots of different aquatic plants. Make tiers about 12 inches wide to accommodate the pots.

5. Remove any rocks from the excavated area.

6. To help prevent punctures in the plastic, put a one-inch layer of damp sand on the bottom of the excavated area.

7. Spread the plastic liner over the hole. Let it sag gently in the hole. Place a few rocks or bricks around the edge to hold in place.

8. Slowly, start filling your pond. The weight of the water will help smooth out the liner. Remove rocks holding the edges to allow liner to conform to the edges of the hole. Smooth out wrinkles but do not pull too tightly. You can walk on the liner if you remove your shoes.

9. Finish off the pond by placing rocks around the edge to securely hold the liner in place.

10. Install pump and filter, if desired. Many smaller pumps have a built-in filter, but for larger pools, a separate pump and filter may be necessary. Be sure the filter and pump are adequate for the volume of water in your pond. Pumps not only add interest but are important in adding oxygen to the water. If you want a fountain or waterfall in your pond, you will need a pump to circulate the water.

11. Let the pond sit for a few days before adding fish and plants. This allows chlorine to evaporate from the water. Chemicals are also available that will quickly neutralize chlorine and other harmful compounds.

12. Place plants at various depths and add fish.

* ESTABLISHING PLANTS

For ponds, consider a mix of emergent, submergent and floating species. Emergent plants (those that have their roots in the water but their shoots above water) can be added to the margins of pools. These include cattails (Typha spp.), arrowhead (Sagittaria spp.) and water lilies (Nymphaea spp.). Submergent species (or those that remain under water, such as Elodea) are often used as oxygenators. These are plants that remove carbon dioxide from the water, add oxygen and are essential in most ponds to keep the water clear. Floating species, or those that are not anchored at all in the pond, include plants such as duckweed (Lemna minor), water lettuce (Pistia stratiotes) and water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes). While attractive, water hyacinth and water lettuce can be serious weed problems in the south; however, since they are not winter hardy, there is no problem with them spreading in northern climates. While not as effective as oxygenators, these plants help keep the water clear by limiting the amount of sunlight that algae receive. In tiny ponds created in barrels and similar containers, these plants may be adequate to maintain clear water.

* CHOOSING AND ESTABLISHING PLANTS FOR PONDS

1. Consider the following when selecting plants:

a. How deep is the water? This will be a factor in establishing plants and their survival over winter if you live in colder regions. Some species need a minimum depth of two to three feet to grow well.

b. Is your pond permanently installed in the ground or is it a small tub that will be moved inside in the winter? In this case, even tropical plants may be an option.

c. Will you drain your pond in the winter? If you intend to drain your pond, you should consider plants that can spend the winter in a basement in a dormant state.

d. How much sunlight does your pond receive?

e. How large is your pond? If your pond is small, consider dwarf species.

2. Purchase plants from a reliable vendor. Remember to include some oxygenator plants, such as Elodea.

3. Emergent and submergent plants should be planted into pots. A wide assortment of pots is available, from plastic baskets to pulp planters. Choose pots that are large enough for your plants.

4. If using baskets with numerous perforations, line the basket with burlap or two layers of newspaper to keep the soil from falling out of the holes.

5. Fill the container about half full with a mixture of good garden topsoil. Do not use potting mixes or peat moss. These are too light and will float out of the pot. Adding aquatic plant fertilizer to this bottom layer of soil is recommended for some species. Follow directions on the label for amount.

6. Place the plant on top of the soil and fill the container with topsoil within one inch of the top.

7. When planting water lily rhizomes, make a mound of soil in the middle of the pot, Place the rhizome at a 45-degree angle. The crown of the rhizome should be toward the center of the pot. Cover the roots with soil, but not the crown.

8. In all cases, add a layer of gravel to the top of the pot. This will help keep the soil from floating out and prevent fish from digging in the soil.

9. Slowly place the pots in the pool to keep soil from floating out. Place pots on bricks to get the desired height.

10. Floating species can be placed directly into the pond with no other care needed.

Plants should cover 50 to 70 percent of the water surface. Native plants usually do not need fertilizer, but for some exotic water lilies, limited fertilizing once yearly may be required. Check with your nursery for care of plants and how deep to place potted plants. Be aware that over-fertilizing may cause unwanted algae blooms that can rob the water of oxygen.

* ADD FISH & SCAVENGERS

Consider stocking your backyard pond with native fish. They are fun to watch and help keep the pond free of unwanted insects. Most small ponds will warm up quickly in the summer, so be sure to stock with fish that can tolerate elevated temperatures.

You'll also need scavengers, such as aquatic snails and tadpoles, to help control algae. In cold climates, a heater may be necessary for fish to survive the winter. However, this uses a significant amount of electricity and, in most cases, probably is not justified. A better option may be to set up an indoor aquarium in which to over-winter fish and plants.

* MAINTENANCE

Algae are a common problem in many newly established ponds. The water often becomes an unsightly green after a few days. While your first instinct is to drain the pond and start over, this only prolongs the problem. Once a pond is "balanced," algae usually are kept at an acceptable level. A balanced pond is one in which the nutrients are at the appropriate level for the plants present. Excess nutrients and light are needed for algae. Reducing the nutrients and decreasing the amount of light entering the water will help reduce algae. Floating plants, or those with broad leaves, such as water lilies, will help reduce the amount of light available for algae and compete for available nutrients. Scavengers, such as snails, will help clean up wastes from the bottom of the pond.

Pond filters can help reduce algae but require maintenance, as filters need to be cleaned frequently if algae are a problem. Chemicals can also be used to control algae, but use cautiously, as they can be toxic to other plants and aquatic life. The need for algaecides should decrease as plants become established.

Excessive plant growth, especially of free-floating plants, may be a problem. Periodically skim off excess growth of duckweed, water lettuce and other floating plants. Monthly, prune dying plant material. In the spring, clean out some of the decaying plant material that has accumulated in the bottom of the pond. Remember: a natural pond is not a swimming pool, and too much cleaning can do more harm than good.

* SAFETY

Locate the backyard pond where it is unlikely to attract unattended children. Check local safety ordinances to determine if a fence is required for the specific depth and size of your pond, and check local building ordinances for depth and safety restrictions and permits. Equip outdoor outlets with a ground-fault circuit interrupter. Unplug the pump before cleaning the filter.

* ON THE FARM

A properly located and maintained pond can reduce gully erosion and improve water quality. Ponds provide water for livestock, waterfowl and fish, store water for emergencies and add beauty to the landscape. Wildlife use ponds for water and habitat.

--Courtesy of USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service. For more information, phone 1.888.LANDCARE or visit www.nhq.nrcs.usda.gov.

Sources:

William Tricker, Inc.
7125 Tanglewood Drive
Independence, OH 44131
800.524.3492
www.TRICKER.com
(All your water gardening needs)

Van Ness Water Gardens
2460 N. Euclid, Dept. 202
Upland, CA 91784-1199
877.WTR.LILY
www.vnwg.com
(Aquatic specialists)

COPYRIGHT 2002 KC Publishers, Inc.

COPYRIGHT 2008 Gale, Cengage Learning

Fire-tolerant plants

Fire danger--it doesn't seem to matter what type of weather we get, fire anger is always perilous, especially for rural and hillside residents. But you can breathe easier if you remember three R's: remove fuel, reduce fuel and replace fire-hazardous plants with fire-resistant landscaping. * Flammable native brush, weeds and grasses can be replaced with plants that are inherently less flammable. That means you have to remove the "fuel" around your yard first. Weeds and brush can be cut down with a string trimmer and then sprayed with a weed control method of your choice. Reduce fuel by pruning shrubs and trees within your defensible space. * As far as replacing them with fire-resistant landscaping, please note right up front that all plants will burn if exposed to enough heat. But, most fleshy-leafed plants will smolder a lot longer before burning, since their foliage doesn't contain oils that make some brush explode in flames.

The fire-retardant plant list includes groundcovers to use in cleared areas around rural homes. Many states have laws that require a 30-foot defensible space around all structures in rural areas. However, this space can extend to 400 feet if your home is down slope from a steep hillside.

Among the more common groundcovers are iceplant, sedum, ivy geranium, African daisy, myoporum, periwinkle (Vinca major or minor), ornamental strawberry, rosemary, rockrose (cistus) and star jasmine. These groundcovers can also reduce fire danger around tract homes.

Some shrubs with fire resistance are wild lilac (ceanothus), Australian fuchsia, strawberry tree, live oak, saltbrush, western red bud, cotoneaster, escallonia, toyon, oleanderm pyracantha, raphiolepis and pittsosporum.

At all costs, if you live in a hillside or rural area, remove these highly flammable plants: scotch broom, Algerian ivy, bamboo, pampas grass, eucalyptus, juniper and pine.

Shape and growth are important, too. Upright rosemary, for example, is not fire retardant, but trailing rosemary is.

All homeowners should cut back plants as needed and remove dead growth. In addition, remove leaves and needles from roofs and gutters. Trim any portion of trees extending over buildings or within ten feet of the chimney.

Other maintenance chores involve removing the low branches of large trees. Remove the bottom ten feet of branches to prevent fires from using the tree as a ladder. Using non-flammable materials where possible in the garden is always a good idea. For example, at the base of trees and shrubs, replace vegetation with mulch, such as bark, rock or gravel. In fact, anyplace there is bare dirt where weeds can grow, consider replacing with a mulch.

Finally, make sure your home has easily read and positioned address numbers legible from a main and traveled roadway. The fire department has to know where you are before they can help.

--Article by Keith Muraoka

Source

Point your browser to WWW.CACTI.COM, a full online shopping website for aloes, agaves, euphorbias, and many other drought tolerant succulents. 80% percent water content also provides for superior fire resistance that enhances home safety during brush fires. Over 80 species grown hard under full exposure, not in a greenhouse, and ready for your gardening pleasure.

Garden lawn chair

These simple-to-make chairs are a great addition to any backyard or deck--and even without a pillow, they are surprisingly comfortable. A great way to add seating to your backyard living space when you have very little time and money.

* MATERIALS

17 linear feet of 2 x 4 pine
30 linear feet of 1 x 4 pine

* HARDWARE

95 2 1/2" wood screws
4 3 1/2" carriage bolts
4 3 1/2" lag screws

* SPECIAL TOOLS
AND TECHNIQUES

Bar clamps

* HARDWARE

50 1 5/8" wood screws

340 1 1/4" (3d) finish nails

INSTRUCTIONS

* Building the Seat

1. Cut one Seat Front (A) from 1 x 4 pine, measuring 20 inches.

2. Cut two Seat Sides (B) from 2 x 4 pine, each measuring 19 inches.

3. Position the two Seat Sides (B) on edge, parallel to each other and 17 inches apart. Fit the Seat Front (A) over the ends of the Seat Sides (B), as shown in figure 1. Apply glue to the meeting surfaces, and screw through the Seat Front (A) into the ends of the Seat Sides (B), using two 2 1/2-inch wood screws on each joint.

[FIGURE 1 OMITTED]

4. Cut five Seat Slats (C) from 1 x 4 pine, each measuring 20 inches.

5. Place the seat assembly [Seat Front (A) and Seat Sides (B)] on a flat surface. Position the five Seat Slats (C) over the assembly, as shown in figure 2. The first Seat Slat (C) should be set back 1/2 inch from the face of the Seat Front (A), and the Seat Sides (B) should remain exposed at the other end. Screw through the Seat Slats (C) into the Seat Sides (B), using two 2 1/2-inch wood screws on each joint.

[FIGURE 2 OMITTED]

* Making the Back

1. Cut two Back Supports (D) from 2 x 4 pine, each measuring 14 1/2 inches.

2. Cut five Backs (E) from 1 x 4 pine, each measuring 20 inches.

3. Position the two Back Supports (D) on a flat surface, parallel to each other and 13 inches apart. Position one Back (E) over the two Back Supports (D), as shown in figure 3. The first Back (E) should overhang the ends of the two Back Supports (D) by 1 inch. Apply glue to the meeting surfaces, and screw through the Back (E) into each of the Back Supports (D), using two 2 1/2-inch wood screws on each joint.

[FIGURE 3 OMITTED]

4. Repeat step 3 four times to attach the remaining four Backs (E) to the two Back Supports (D).

* Making the Sides

1. Cut two Arms (F) from 1 x 4 pine, each measuring 21 inches.

2. Using figure 4 as a guide, shape the one Arm (F) by eliminating cutting off the shaded portions. Use the shaped Arm (F) as a pattern to cut the remaining Arm (F).

[FIGURE 4 OMITTED]

3. Cut four Arm Supports (G) from 2 x 4 pine, each measuring 24 inches.

4. Position two Arm Supports (G) face down on a level surface, parallel to each other and 12 inches apart. Place one Arm (F), uncut edge down, over the ends of the two Arm Supports (G), as shown in figure 5. The Arm (F) should overlap each of the Arm Supports (G) by 1 inch on each side. Apply glue to the meeting surfaces, and screw through the Arm (F) into the end of the Arm Supports (G), using two 2 1/2-inch wood screws on each joint.

[FIGURE 5 OMITTED]

5. Repeat step 4 to construct another side, using the remaining two Arm Supports (G) and the remaining Arm (F).

* Attaching the Arms

1. Draw a line across the inside of each Arm Support (G), 18 inches from the unattached end. This will be the placement line for the next step.

2. This step is easier with a helper. The object is to clamp the assembled seat between the two side assemblies (as shown in figure 6), then secure the seat with carriage bolts. The top of the seat should be positioned at the placement marks that you drew on the Arm Supports (G). The front Arm Supports (G) should be positioned 2 inches from the front of the seat assembly. When the sides are in position, clamp the two sides and seat assemblies tightly together, using bar clamps.

[FIGURE 6 OMITTED]

3. Drill a hole slightly larger than the diameter of the 3 1/2-inch carriage bolt through the center of each of the Arm Supports (G) and into the Seat Sides (B). Then insert a 3 1/2-inch carriage bolt through each of the holes. Tighten the bolts securely.

* Adding the Back

1. Insert the back assembly between the two assembled sides. The Backs (E) should face the front of the chair, and the recessed end of the two Back Supports (D) should be at the top of the chair. To make the chair more comfortable, tilt the back assembly at a slight angle--out at the top and in at the bottom. The tilt angle is determined by the width of the 2 x 4 on the Arm Supports (G) and the back of the Arm (F).

2. When you have the back fitted perfectly, secure the assembly with bar clamps. Screw through the Arm Supports (H) into the Back Supports (E), using two 2 1/2-inch wood screws. Then insert a 3 1/2-inch lag screw through the Arm Supports (H) and into the Back Supports (E).

* Finishing

1. Fill any cracks, crevices, or screw holes with wood filler.

2. Sand the completed chair thoroughly.

3. Paint or stain the chair the color of your choice--or simply leave it the natural color.

CUTTING LIST

Code   Description    Qty.   Materials    Dimensions

A      Seat Front     1      2 x 4 pine   20" long
B      Seat Side      2      2 x 4 pine   19" long
C      Seat Slat      5      1 x 4 pine   20" long
D      Back Support   2      2 x 4 pine   14 1/2" long
E      Back           5      1 x 4 pine   20" long
F      Arm            2      1 x 4 pine   21" long
G      Arm Support    2      2 x 4 pine   24" long

It’s time for me to move on in my life..

THIS is Joanne Salley in her sexiest photoshoot ever. She may have just split from England rugby hunk Matt Dawson but Joanne is showing no signs of a broken heart.

Ex-Miss Northern Ireland Joanne dated Matt for six years and admits the split hit her hard.

But she is determined to do all in her power to put the sadness aside and rediscover herself in a new life as a single girl.

The Cambridge graduate and former Big Breakfast presenter found fame after being crowned Miss Northern Ireland in 1998 and coming runner-up in the Miss UK pageant.

Joanne, 31, from Dungannon, Co Tyrone, had been living in London for the past 10 years but says she needs new challenges in her life now that she has split from Question of Sport team captain Matt, 36.

To help her get over the split she is about to set off on a five- month volunteer programme in Cambodia where she will help impoverished street children at a charity shelter.

Now she has spoken openly about her split for the first time and said now is right for her to move on.

“My break up with Matt is very sad but it is just one of those things and we both agree that it is for the best.

“We were together for a long time and had an absolutely fantastic relationship, many good times and so much fun together but it is time for a new beginning and a new start for both of us.

“One of the problems was that we both have extremely busy lifestyles and didn’t see enough of each other. It is so difficult when you want to spend time with the person you love but find that work constantly gets in the way.

“We are both good about what has happened and 2009 is all about new starts for me. Cambodia will be so different and I suppose I won’t know what to expect until I am there and have done the five months.

It will certainly be yet another new challenge for me and one I am looking forward to immensely,” she told new Northern Ireland celebrity magazine IN!

She also revealed that when she returns from her charity stint, she plans to concentrate on another first – her own art exhibition in Belfast – having recently decided to pursue a career as a full time artist.

Joanne – who is a gifted artist and qualified art teacher – will put her talents to work in Cambodia by teaching the abused and neglected children how to paint wall murals at the M’Lop Tapang project in the village of Sihainoukville.

She said: “Every year I try to take on at least two major challenges which I usually combine with raising money for charity. I need to challenge myself and do something that takes me out of my comfort zone and which not only makes a difference for me but for other people too.

“As soon as I heard about the about the project in Cambodia and I knew immediately that I wanted to get involved. The village is a very poor area where people live in tin huts on rubbish dumps.

“There is a real problem with paedophiles preying on the children and the project provides a safe place during the day and aims to help get them off the streets.

“I plan to do an art project with them and paint the centre from top to bottom with murals. The centre is run entirely by volunteers and I am glad I am able to spend five months there, to help make a difference.

“I want to bring joy to other people and I want to see the joy on the kids’ faces. It is a very poor place and I know it is going to be one of the biggest and most emotional experiences I have ever had.

“I realise it is going to be tough because of the poverty and abuse these children have suffered but I am really looking forward to doing what I can and feel lucky that I have the opportunity to help.”

She also revealed that she loved the London lifestyle and her time in the Capital with Matt but deep down always missed Northern Ireland.

Joanne added: “Being with Matt our lifestyle centred round other sports stars and TV presenters and we went to a lot of red carpet do such as dinners, polo events, racing, ballet and theatre.

“It is a good lifestyle to dip in and out of, but Northern Ireland is where my heart is and always has been.

“I love Northern people and it’s a great place to live and I am so proud of Northern Ireland and of Belfast which is doing so well.

“London is great too and I have got a lot of friends there but when I come back from Cambodia I think I would like to stay in Northern Ireland for a while and concentrate on my art. I don’t have a base at the minute and have put all my stuff in storage.”

Her art career took off after she was commissioned to paint a murals in the children’s bedrooms of one of her celebrity footballing couple pals.

Joanne went on: “They were thrilled and before I knew it I was flat out with more bookings through word of mouth. I also did some restaurants and hotel receptions and things mushroomed from there.

“Before this I had thought about going back to the BBC but the art is going so well that I want to do full time and I have decided to try and put some paintings together for an exhibition in Belfast later this year.”

IN! is in the shops now, where you can read all the latest Northern Ireland celebrity stories.

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The easy way to maintain your lawn

The amount of time and money you spend maintaining your lawn depends a lot on what your idea of a lawn should be-not necessarily what your lawn actually needs. Early lawns of the Middle Ages did not require much maintenance. That’s because they were inspired by glades or grassy openings in the forest (not pictures in magazines or golf courses). These lawns were meadow-like mixtures of grasses and flowers that were planted amongst fruit trees, vines, flowers and herbs and enclosed by fences or courtyards. There was no mowing. Grass was kept from growing too tall by trampling it into a soft, woven mat-like surface. If you too can adjust your expectations to taller grass, a mix of other plants in your turf, such as clover, and midsummer periods when your grass temporarily turns brown, you can achieve a low-maintenance lawn-and one that’s closer to the original spirit of the lawn.

* THE RIGHT HEIGHT

There are several reasons not to cut your grass too short. First, grass grows from the crown, not the blade tips. This trait makes grass ideal for lawns because they keep on growing despite the regular mowing off of their upper stem, leaf sheath and blades. This is also why it’s important not to damage grass crowns by accidental scalping with the mower. No crown, no grassy Second, keeping grass on the longer side also allows it greater surface area to carry out photosynthesis. This in turn results in healthier plants. Third, taller grass grows slower than shorter grass. You can use this simple fact to eliminate up to 20 percent of the mowing you do annually. That’s a savings of about 8 hours for the average lawn owner, not to mention a savings of gasoline and wear and tear on equipment. Finally, by keeping your grass at high end of its recommended mowing height, you can prevent 90 percent of all weeds from germinating and thereby eliminate the need for herbicides.

* WHEN TO MOW

Most cool season grasses should be cut when they reach heights of 3 to 3-1/2 inches, typically once a week. Warm season grasses should be mowed when it is 2 to 2-1/2 inches tall. Cut no more than one-third of the grass height at each mowing to avoid damage to plants. If the lawn grows too high for you to cut off one-third the height and have an acceptable length, cut off one-third now and mow one-third off again in two or three days. Cutting more than one-third the height will cause grass clippings to lay on top of the lawn and decompose more slowly and will give the grass a more open bristly appearance. In addition, short cutting will stunt or slow root growth and weaken the grass plants.

* WHAT TO DO WITH YOUR LAWN CLIPPINGS

Today’s advice, contrary to 20 or 30 years ago, is to leave clippings on the lawn. The old belief that clippings contribute to thatch build-up is false. Thatch is a build-up of roots and stems, not grass blades. Use a mulching mower and leave clippings where they fall. It not only saves the labor of collecting and composting them, it also reduces the need for adding fertilizer to your lawn and helps to conserve soil moisture. There are exceptions, however, to this advice. If you have neglected your mowing or must mow in wet conditions, the long clippings are likely to form heavy soggy clumps that cover the grass. In such cases, the clippings should be removed so they do not smother the grass. The idea of leaving clippings on the lawn is not new. In 1859 Henry Winthrop Sargent, a garden book writer and editor, wrote “except during may and June when the growth of grass is more rampant, and has to be gathered, we have removed our box for catching the grass as it falls from the rollers, and permit it to fly in a little shower all over the lawn as the cutting progresses. In this way, the lawn top-dresses itself, by returning all that it produces.”

Today’s new mulching mowers, also called recycling mowers, make it even easier to leave clippings where they fall. The deck and blade designs enable these mowers to cut each blade several times, producing a finely chopped clipping.

* WATERING FREQUENCY AND AMOUNT

You should try to give your lawn the water it needs-and no more. This conserves an important resource, saves money and helps prevent grass from becoming diseased due to too much water. How much water your lawn needs depends on the health of your lawn and soil, rainfall and on your climate. You may need only two waterings per year or as many as two per week.

The best approach to deciding when to water grass is to follow nature’s pattern of rainy periods followed by dry ones. Apply enough water to penetrate to the roots of the grass all at once, let the soil almost dry out and apply water again. Grass signals that it needs water by losing its spring-when you walk across the lawn and see your footprints, your lawn probably needs to be watered.

To decide how much water to apply, you should consider several things: the depth of your grass roots, your type of soil and water’s ability to penetrate it and, of course, the weather. First, check to see how deep the roots of your grass are. Add an inch to the average root depth, and this will give you a target for watering depth. It makes no sense to waste water by watering to a depth that’s deeper than your lawn’s root zone. Root depth depends on how much time you have taken to improve your soil and on what type of grass you are growing. Some grasses, such as tall fescues, have roots that can reach one foot deep. Others only grow to half of that, even in the best of conditions. As your grass develops deeper roots, you should adjust your watering target so that you continue to encourage roots to go deeper.

Next, determine how much water it takes to moisten soil to just beyond your root depth. A good rule of thumb is that you will need one to two inches, once or twice a week. If your soil is porous and drains quickly, you would apply one inch of water at the twice-a-week frequency. Conversely, if your soil holds water well, a good guess would be two inches once a week.

To accurately determine how long to run your sprinkler to deliver the desired amount of water, set out cans after a four-to-five day dry spell. Then run your sprinkler until you have delivered one inch of water to your lawn. Wait twenty-four hours to allow the water to penetrate the soil (12 hours if your soil is porous), and then check the depth of the moisture penetration.

If one inch of water moistens soil to a depth well beyond the root depth, try the procedure again but deliver less water. Conversely, if the root depth is not reached, try delivering more water. Keep accurate records of how long you run your sprinkler to deliver the required amounts of water, and base future waterings on what you have learned. If it rains during the week, decrease your watering by the amount of rain. If it has been hot and sunny or windy, you may need to increase your watering amount and frequency.

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